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Discussion Paper
Transportation as a Moral Issue
Today we in the U.S. are driving much more than we were in years past, and our
driving is having harmful consequences. Here are some key findings about U.S.
transportation to provide a context for our discussion:
- U.S. transportation energy use accounted for more than one third of the total
world transportation energy use in 1997.7
- In 1994, nearly 60% of U.S. households owned two or more cars and 19% owned three
or more.8
- Since 1970, vehicle miles traveled (VMT) have increased 149% while U.S. population
increased 39%.9
- The 2000 census revealed that 3 out of 4 workers drive to work alone, an increase
from both 10 and 20 years ago. The 2000 census also revealed that less than 5%
use public transportation and less than 3% telecommute.10
- Fuel economy for passenger vehicles peaked in 1988 and is at a 22 year low.
This is due to the increase in vehicles from the "light trucks" category (SUVs,
vans, and pickups). Such vehicles are allowed by the federal corporate average
fuel economy (CAFE) standards to use one third more fuel than cars. Since the
CAFE law passed in 1975 they have seen explosive growth (SUVs have increased by
a factor of 10 since 1975) and now account for nearly 50% of the market.11
- Federal law allows vehicles in the "light truck" category (e.g. SUVs) to emit
75% more smog forming emissions than cars.12
Forty-five percent of the rise in global warming pollution from personal vehicles
in the 1990s was due to the increase of vehicles in the "light trucks" category.13
- Health
Currently more than one in three Americans live in areas with unhealthy outdoor air,
and in many areas it is getting worse, especially in poorer neighborhoods. According
to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), tailpipe pollution from cars and trucks
accounts for almost a third of outdoor air pollution in the United States, including
approximately half of the pollution that creates smog (or ground level ozone). In
addition, production and distribution of gasoline accounts for half of the toxic air
pollutants released (e.g. benzene). In 1996 health care costs due to transportation
pollution totaled $56 billion.14
According to the EPA, it has been known for some time that outdoor air pollution
associated with vehicles can:
- cause acute respiratory problems;
- aggravate asthma;
- cause significant temporary decreases in lung capacity of 15 to over 20 percent in
- some healthy adults;
- cause inflammation of lung tissue;
- lead to hospital admissions and emergency room visits (10 to 20 percent of all
- summertime respiratory-related hospital visits in the northeastern U.S. are
associated with ozone pollution);
- impair the body's immune system defenses, making people more susceptible to
respiratory illnesses, including bronchitis and pneumonia;15
and,
- increase a person's risk of cancer.16
For the first time recent studies have linked outdoor air pollution to:
- harming the blood vessels of healthy individuals17;
- birth defects, low birth weight, premature births, stillbirths and infant deaths18;
- measurable lung damage in healthy children, which could lead to lung disease19;
- healthy, active children becoming 3-4 times more likely to develop asthma20.
Asthma is reaching epidemic proportions21:
- Asthma has increased 74% among children and teenagers ages 5-14 since 1980, and an
astounding 160% for children 1-4.
- By 2020 asthma sufferers are projected to double to 29 million with one family in
five forced to live with the disease.
- Currently seven percent of children suffer from asthma, which is the number one
cause of school absences.
- African-American children are five times more likely to die from asthma than
white children.22
According to the EPA,23 pollution from vehicles not only harms human beings,
it impacts the rest of God's creation as well by:
- interfering with the ability of plants to produce and store food, so that growth,
reproduction and overall plant health are compromised;
- making plants more susceptible to disease, pests, and environmental stresses;
- reducing agricultural yields for many economically important crops (e.g., soybeans,
kidney beans, wheat, cotton);
- affecting the long-term health of whole forests or ecosystems;
- killing or damaging leaves so that they fall off the plants too soon or become
spotted or brown (significantly decreasing the natural beauty of an area, such
as in national parks and recreation areas);
- contributing to fish kills and algae blooms in sensitive waterways, such as the
Chesapeake Bay; and
- contributing to the formation of acid rain, which also causes serious damage to
the rest of God's creation.
The more we learn about the effects of outdoor air pollution on human health
and the health of the rest of creation, the more we who are called to follow the
Great Physician and love our neighbors as ourselves should be motivated to protect
our loved ones and others from this threat. Using less gasoline, whether by
driving less or by driving a more fuel efficient vehicle, reduces pollution that
hurts others and the rest of God's creation.
- Peace, Justice, & National and Economic Security
Congress originally passed the corporate average fuel economy law (CAFE) in
1975 for national security reasons, to make us less dependent on foreign oil
from unstable regions. This is still an appropriate rationale. Unfortunately,
for years members in the House of Representatives have attached a rider to the
Department of Transportation (DOT) Appropriations bill to prevent the DOT from
doing the mandated study necessary to raise CAFE standards. Thus, fuel economy
is at a 22 year low, and we are more dependent than ever on foreign oil.
In 2001 the U.S. imported over 50% of the nation's oil,24 with about 25%
coming from the Middle East.25
- The U.S. spends $20-40 billion a year to defend Middle Eastern oil resources.26
- The U.S. sends $200,000 overseas each minute to buy oil products.27
- By 2020 oil imports are projected to be 64%.28
- Up to 75% of the world's oil reserves are in the Middle East and are controlled by
the OPEC oil cartel.29
- Oil price spikes from 1979 to 1991 cost the U.S. economy about $4 trillion, and
the economy went into recession after each major price shock.30
Furthermore, as pointed out above, we in the U.S. definitely uses more than
our fair share, accounting for more than one third of the total world transportation
energy use in 1997.31
As followers of the Prince of Peace, Christians should strive to lessen
circumstances that could lead to violent conflicts by reducing our consumption
of oil.
- Global Warming & "The Least of These"
The United States is the world's largest emitter of the pollution that is
causing human-induced global climate change. In the 1990s electric utility
generation accounted for 29%, while the transportation sector accounted for 26%
of U.S. global warming pollution.32
However, transportation's share rose throughout the decade, becoming the largest
source in 1998 (over 30% in 1998).33
It is projected to continue to be the largest source for the next 20 years.34
As far back as 1971 evangelical Christian ethicists started to warn of the
dangers of global warming.35 Recently, Christian
scientists and leaders have begun to speak out collectively on the threat
global warming poses to humanity and the rest of Christ's creation.36
In July 2002 at a conference in Oxford, England, prominent scientists and
evangelical Christian leaders issued the Oxford Declaration on Global Warming.
It warns that climate change "poses a great threat to the common good,
especially to the poor, the vulnerable and future generations."37
The scientific basis for the Oxford Declaration, as well as for the
international process that has led to the two global warming treaties
(Rio and Kyoto), comes from the most authoritative scientific voice on global
warming, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Its latest
three volume report makes it clear that the impacts from global warming are a
profound violation of the Great Commandments and the Golden Rule, and work
against Christ's reconciliation of all things (Col. 1:20).38 One message is
loud and clear: the poor and the rest of creation will be hit the hardest.
Global warming is therefore a profound challenge to Christian justice and our
call to care for "the least of these" (Mt. 25:40, 45). Here are some facts and
biblical texts to consider together.
- Developing country economies are much more dependent on agriculture than
developed countries. Most developing countries are in tropical and subtropical
regions, where the IPCC projects that global warming will significantly reduce
agricultural output.39 An additional 80-90 million poor people could be at risk
of hunger and malnutrition later in the 21st century simply because of global
climate change40 (Lk. 4:18-19; Acts 14:17).
- Developing country economies are also much more dependent on coastal
industries, which are projected to be heavily impacted.41 Approximately
60% of people in developing countries derive 40% of their protein from
fish.42 (Mk. 6:30-44).
- Developing countries are much less able to withstand the devastation
caused by extreme weather events, and climate change is likely to increase
such events. For example, global warming could increase the number of people
impacted by flooding by 20-50 million43 (Job 38: 8-11; Ps. 104:9).
- Human health risks will be greater in developing countries due to the
potential for increased geographical distribution of infectious diseases
such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis.44 For
example, by 2080 additional 300 million people could be at risk of malaria
due to global warming45 (Mk. 6:54-56).
- Each of these stressors increases the likelihood of environmental refugees
and violent conflicts (Micah 4: 1-4; Isa. 9:6).
- Although the developed countries will likely have the resources to adapt
to the impacts of global warming, the poor in these countries will suffer
disproportionately. For example, large cities in the U.S. "may experience,
on average, several hundred extra deaths per summer."46
- The harmful impacts from global climate change will not happen in isolation.
By 2050 the human population is projected to be approximately 9.3
billion47 and worldwide economic activity is projected to have quadrupled
from 1990 levels.48 Depletion of the ozone layer, various forms of air and
water pollution, depletion of fresh water supplies, acid rain, loss of
biodiversity, deforestation, and soil erosion and depletion-these problems
continue as well. Combined with global warming, the synergistic impacts could
be devastating.
- Entire ecosystems may be lost49 (Lev. 25:23; Rev. 11:18).
- Other ecosystems will be severely impacted.50
- Fully one third of the world's forest ecosystems-home to the vast majority
of God's land-based creatures-will experience major changes51
(Ps. 104:16-17).
- For coastal areas-home to the vast majority of God's sea creatures-whole
food chains could be disrupted52 (Ps. 104:24-26).
- Geographically fixed safe areas for endangered species such as national parks
could be rendered impotent as ecosystems shift (Ecc. 3:19-21).
- Threats to many species (e.g. the Bengal tiger, the African mountain gorilla)
are at the level of survival53 (Gen. 1:20-22; Ps. 104:27-30).
Pollution that causes the threat of global warming violates the Great
Commandments, the Golden Rule, and the biblical call to care for "the least
of these," and therefore denies Christ's Lordship and His reconciliation of all
things "through his blood, shed on the cross" (Col. 1:20).
- Safety
Last but certainly not least is the issue of safety. The moral concerns of
health, peace, justice, national security, economic security, and the threat of
global warming all point towards the need to reduce pollution from the
transportation sector. Besides choosing transportation options other than
personal motor vehicles, the best way to reduce pollution is to choose
fuel-efficient vehicles. Unfortunately, for many types of vehicles such choices
are not available - although they could be using technology that exists today.
The fuel efficiency of new vehicles must be increased to address the moral
concerns articulated above.
But will increasing fuel efficiency lead to vehicles that are less safe?
If done right with technologies available today, the answer is no.
The obvious solution is to increase fuel efficiency while maintaining or
even increasing overall safety of drivers of passenger vehicles. Reducing
the weight of larger vehicles and designing them to be less aggressive will
actually increase safety for those in smaller vehicles.54
Due to their design (e.g. high bumpers) and weight, some types of vehicles,
e.g. many SUVs, unduly threaten passengers of other vehicles. Light truck
category vehicles increase the risk of fatality more than four times when
striking a car (compared to a car striking a car).55
Furthermore, compared to the top four best selling cars, risk of death for
the top four SUVs is 26% higher, and it is 68% higher for the top four
selling pickups.56
When choosing a vehicle to drive, Christians must think of the safety of
others as well themselves and their family members.57
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Contents
Introduction
Who Jesus Is
Transportation as a Moral Issue
Action Principles
Footnotes
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